E-Book - The Magical Maze : Seeing The World Through Mathematical Eyes

E-Book - The Magical Maze : Seeing The World Through Mathematical Eyes
Ian Stewart | Weidenfeld & Nicolson | 1997 | 4272 KB

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The Anatomy of Memory System : An Overview of Ricent Development

Title : The Anatomy of Memory System : An Overview of Ricent Development
Author : Elias Sukardi
Publisher : Anima
Volume : OKT 2001 VOL. 17 NO.1

Keyword : memory, longterm potential, retention, calcium ion


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A pragmatic approach to conducting a successful benchmarking expedition Case of Dubai Holding Group (DHG)

A pragmatic approach to conducting a successful benchmarking expedition
Case of Dubai Holding Group (DHG)

The Authors
Simmy Marwa, European Centre for Total Quality Management (ECTQM), School of Management, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
Mohamed Zairi, European Centre for Total Quality Management (ECTQM), School of Management, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide a conceptual framework for conducting a benchmarking visit/expedition.

Design/methodology/approach – Recent articles on the models of benchmarking are reviewed and used to construct a seven-step benchmarking visit/expedition framework that is subsequently tested by applying it to facilitate a benchmarking expedition for Dubai Holding Group (DHG) with United Utilities, Bradford and Bingley and the Marriot Hotel, all of the UK.

Findings – The paper finds that good planning and execution of the benchmarking visit are essential. How the visit is conducted influences favourably/unfavourably the outcomes of the visit/expedition. Capturing meaningful learning of best practices required a purpose-focused approach/framework to guide gathering, documenting and prioritising best practice evidences. The suggested 7-Steps framework, when applied, focuses actions towards realising and reaping the full potential of such visits/expeditions. The 7-Steps model enabled DHG to exhaustively collect, document and prioritise best practice actions from the three benchmarking partners thereby rendering the expeditions a success.

Practical implications – The success of a benchmarking visit's/expedition's outcome is contingent on the planning and training undertaken prior to the visit/expedition, how the visit itself is conducted and crucially, the usability and reliability of data and evidence gathered. Poor execution of a benchmarking visit even with good planning inevitably yields poor results and vice versa.

Originality/value – The paper contributes to knowledge by closing a knowledge gap and providing a framework that enables user organisations to fully realise the benefits of a benchmarking visit/expedition.

Article Type:Case study
Keyword(s):Benchmarking; Continuous improvement; Modelling.
Journal: The TQM Journal Volume: 20 Number: 1 Year: 2008 pp: 59-67
Copyright ©Emerald Group Publishing Limited
ISSN: 1754-2731

Introduction

Benchmarking has variously been defined as a continuous, systematic process for evaluating products, services, and work processes of organisations that are recognised as representing best practices for the purpose of organisational improvement (Spendoli, 1992), emulating the best by continuously implementing change and measuring performance, (Zairi, 1996), and the practice of being humble enough to admit that someone else is better at something, and being wise enough to learn how to match them and even surpass them at it (APQC, 1993). Freytag and Hollensen (2001) argue that benchmarking is a strategy for implementing changes in organisations – a way of measuring operations against similar operations in order to improve business processes. Maire et al. (2005), assert that benchmarking has passed from a “continuous and systematic process of evaluation of products or services” (Camp, 1989) to a continuous process of identification, learning and implementation of best practices in order to obtain competitive advantage, whether internal, external or generic. Zahorsky (2003) defines best practice as the process of finding and using ideas and strategies from outside your company and industry to improve performance in any given area. Thus, best practice benchmarking (where effective benchmarking expeditions are part and parcel of the process) goes beyond mere standards and measurements against them and focuses on processes, thereby giving an organisation some opportunity to extend the search for best practice beyond their own confines (Fierkers et al., 2000).

Several models of benchmarking has been developed and applied in various settings (Zairi and Youssef, 1995a, b; Kyro, 2004; Delbridge et al., 1995; Maire, 2002; Buyukozkan and Maire, 1998; Brah et al., 2000), all with varied steps or stages of the process. Depending on which model one is using, conducting a benchmarking visit is variously described as involving: collecting data and analysis of discrepancies, visiting them and seeing how they achieve higher performance, studying the best practices, collecting data/information, or analysing findings and making recommendations. Ordinarily, competitive benchmarking visits/expeditions are executed by either conducting a benchmarking visit(s) to a benchmarking partner(s), or by using secondary data. Benchmarking visits/expeditions may either be internally facilitated (using company staff) or externally facilitated (using external resources). Love et al. (1998) have argued in favour of using external facilitation and posit that it is useful for such “experts” to be used to complement the benchmarking team's capabilities and expertise. Zairi (2003) asserts that planning is arguably the most important step in the whole benchmarking process, yet it is often neglected as organisations “want to get started”, by visiting others and regard planning as unnecessary time delaying activity. The practice results in “industrial tourism”, where such visits are conducted without any forethought as to why, how and what such visits will achieve. Thus, if benchmarking partners are not carefully considered, and purpose of such visits thought through thoroughly, then they become mere tourism and miss out any learning from these partners. Zairi (2003), aptly sums it up that the effectiveness of benchmarking will be judged by the impact it has on improving the business. The activity requires both resourcing to undertake the work and commitment to implement the findings judged to be best practice. Davies and Kochhar (1999) have identified lack of no formal benchmarking strategy, absence of any checklist/definitions, confusion of industrial tourism to benchmarking, lack of feedback/results into business plans and targets as amongst the causes of failure in successfully conducting benchmarking visits. Andersen et al. (1999) suggest usage of a generic benchmarking questionnaire during the visit(s) which should then guide the interviewers and help them make sure important information is not left out, while allowing for team members individual contributions in the benchmarking visit. They suggest performing benchmarking visits in teams so as team members can complement each other in terms of skills and interests and contribute to creating ownership in the implementation of bench actions once through with the expedition.

To facilitate benchmarking visits, Freytag and Hollensen (2001) have suggested that the data collection team needs to have uniform collection methods, build robustness in the questionnaire and benchmarking plan, be sure to specify the data at the proper aggregation level, and mail any questionnaires prior to a visit in order to provide time for the benchmarking partner(s) to prepare the data in the format requested. Moreover, the duo count a high degree of willingness and openness towards co-operation as critical if a benchmarking visit is to succeed getting beyond the problems of collecting valid and reliable information. Hinton et al. (2000) suggest that prior to conducting visits, attention should be paid to training of staff to undertake benchmarking in teamwork, communication and change management so as to make these team(s) effective. Love et al. (1998), see adequate communication and consultations amongst benchmarking team members (prior, during and after), recording of evidence at source (for future reference) and asking evidence for what is claimed as having been done as critical determinants of the success of a benchmarking visit. In sum, the success of a benchmarking visit is thus contingent on the planning and training undertaken prior to the visit/expedition, how the visit itself is conducted and crucially, the usability and reliability of data and evidences gathered.

Dubai Holding Group (DHG) is a holding company that belongs to Government of Dubai, and has diverse business interests stretching from property development, hospitality, finance, education, Internet, healthcare, media, investments to cloth retailing (DHG, 2006). The company conducted a benchmarking visit in UK in 2006 that was externally facilitated by the European Centre of Total Quality Management (ECTQM). Having specified its benchmarking criteria/interests (i.e. leadership, policy and strategy; two of the EFQM model's enablers), ECTQM identified and facilitated the expeditions with three UK based partners: Bradford & Bingley (financial services), United Utilities (utilities) and the Marriot Hotel (hospitality).

Research objective

It is essential that any benchmarking visit is focused if it has to realise the benefits associated with studying best practice organisations. While there has been a plethora of research works on benchmarking in general with several models developed, few if any have zeroed on how to conduct benchmarking visits/expeditions let alone developing a framework to facilitate such visits. There is therefore a knowledge gap, which this research seeks to close. The research thus sought to investigate how to successfully conduct a benchmarking visit/expedition.

Methodology

Reference was made of available literature on theory and practice of conducting benchmarking visits. The knowledge lead to the consolidation and construction of a pragmatic framework for conducting benchmarking visits. The 7-Steps framework (Figure 1) was then applied during the DHG benchmarking visits/expeditions in the UK. Step 1 and steps 4 through to 7, of the model are essentially off-site steps (i.e. away from the benchmarking partner's site), whereas steps 2 and 3 are on-site (i.e. within the partner's site). Thus, virtually all the learning and/or capturing of best practice has to occur in steps 2 and 3 otherwise a valuable opportunity will have been lost and with it all the meticulous advance planning. As leadership, policy and strategy were central to this benchmarking expedition, questions to be raised with benchmarking partners were styled and structured to capture evidences of best practice in these enablers. Equally, observations typically focused on capturing evidences of best practices in these enablers. The expedition/visit to each of the benchmarking partner was conducted on a separate day.

Model discussed

The 7-Steps model places a lot of emphasis on and hugely appreciates the essence of advance planning, prior to the benchmarking visit(s). The visit itself is neither the starting point, nor the end of a successful competitive benchmarking exercise, given the positioning of benchmarking visits in different models. Inevitably, advance prudent planning and execution of initial steps prior to the visit(s) form the foundation upon which this model is premised. Thus, advance planning and execution of foundational steps prior to any benchmarking visit is absolutely essential. The benchmarking team needs to be carefully constituted and trained and made to understand the core issues, expectations and activities to be pursued during the visit(s). A pack of information that includes the specific questions to be asked during the benchmarking visit should preferably be dispatched in advance to allow the partner(s) to prepare adequately for the visit(s). Love et al. (1998) suggest that the following be included in the pack:

covering letter;
overview of the benchmarking organisation;
the reason for undertaking the benchmarking project;
details of the process being benchmarked, including key performance indicators (KPIs) and their definitions and descriptions;
benchmarking code of conduct;
data collection plan; and
questionnaire seeking data from the benchmarking partner and a completed questionnaire by the benchmarking team reflecting their company's state-of-the-art of the process being benchmarked.

Accordingly, advance packs with the specified contents were sent in advance to all the benchmarking partners so as to prepare for the expedition.

1. Pre-visit debrief

Prior to commencing the visits the benchmarking team was initially inducted for one day. The debriefing session, which essentially marked the first step of the 7-Step model, served several purposes: training (on benchmarking), team building (members had come from different sub-units of DHG), confidence building (empowerment and motivation), rehearsal of questions (be explicit on what to ask/observe) and role allocation (allocate tasks amongst themselves). The specific issues covered here included:

Initial training of team – themes covered here included benchmarking models and steps, principles, etiquettes, code of conduct and benefits and mistakes. These gave the team proper grounding and readiness to face the tasks ahead.
Briefings – the team was made to absolutely understand the essence of the benchmarking visit.
Familiarisation with the benchmarking partner(s).
Preparations – prepare a presentation to present to the benchmarking partner about DHG.
Ensure that questions to ask were well articulated by all team members.
Allocate roles – divide responsibility amongst team members clarifying on who will record, ask which questions, observe … etc.
Decide on time – time is of essence in an expedition and the available time (based on initial agreement) should be allocated equitably amongst the questions to be asked. Obviously critical questions will demand more time than others. Where possible appoint a time-keeper and agree on how, warnings on time will be communicated to team members so as to stick to the plan and thereby cover all critical aspects.
Benchmarking tool – develop a toolkit with which to record evidence – a computer-based log-book was developed for application.

Satisfied that the team would confidently face the task ahead, it was time to move on to the next critical step of conducting the actual visit.

2. Visit

Arrive in time for the visit and observe etiquette.
Make presentation to the benchmarking partner about your company – salient features of your company and particularly your roadmap to excellence is valuable to mention.
Receive presentation – carefully receive and consider the benchmarking partner's presentation while recording salient evidences of best practices and/or issues to seek further clarification later.

3. Inquire and record

Seek clarification – discuss the partner's presentation probing for further evidence and/or clarification of issues of concern noted in 2 above.
Interview – interrogate partner's representatives by filing questions as predetermined during the pre-visit debrief.
Observe – while some members of the benchmarking team are interviewing, some should be observing around to capture evidences of best practice within.
Document at source – answers to interview questions should be rapidly documented possibly by more than one person (so as to afford comparability later on). The same should apply with observed evidences. Computer-aided toolkits may prove highly effective here, in storing evidence in the logbooks.
Mind time – as team interrogates partners it should mind time and avoid lingering on one issue while several aspects of the inquiry remain unanswered. Stick to the time plan as agreed during the debrief.
Provide pictorial view of the process – figures, flowchart, etc., so as to focus ideas and data collection methodologies.
Depart in time after the visit – and remember to thank the hosts.

4. Debriefing

Discuss presentations – converge after the visit and discuss as a team about the presentations – yours and the partner's, what went well/wrong and lessons learned for future expeditions.
Consider evidences – discuss the evidence captured during the visit in totality without being selective. Accept only that which by consensus is deemed good evidence.
Relate with own – consider how these evidences relates with your own situation particularly their relevancy to your organisation's situation.
Identify gaps – find out variances/variations between your organisation situation and that of the best practice/partner.
Identify as documented approaches used to tackle similar flaws as yours within the partner organisation.
Rank the host of approaches as documented that are applied to tackle gaps/flaws on the basis of say relevancy, cost, expertise required, resource base, gestation period, company structure … etc.
Based on the ranking, consider approaches that are suitable in your own context in solving the gaps.

5. Multiple visits?

It should be clear from the outset, whether the expedition will involve multiple visits or not, so as resources are committed towards the same.
Where the expedition involves more than one partner, it qualifies as a multiple visit and hence, the initial four steps have to be repeated for each of the partners. Otherwise, where only one partner is involved then such a repetitive process is undesirable.

6. Review

The review process involves considering:

Benchaction – based on formal analysis and summary results from a single and/or multiple benchmarking visit(s) (as the case applies), an action plan should then be conceived to enable the company to close the gaps between self and the best practice partner(s).
Schedule action plan – no benchaction is complete without a schedule of action plans detailing resource requirements to be committed within the specified time frame. Ideally, breaking up action into phases/stages eases subsequent implementation.
KPI – the benchaction is not complete without clearly specifying the KPIs, which should guide implementation of corrective strategy besides serving as a yardstick gauging performance.

7. Feedback

The process of conducting a benchmarking expedition is not complete without, providing feedback to the partner(s). The feedback thus, makes the whole exercise mutually beneficial to both companies, as it provides the partner(s) as the case may be, with candid views of which aspects of their performances are superior and those that require some improvement. A copy of the report about the visit should be sent to each of the benchmarking partner before distribution – to allow the partner(s) to correct inaccuracies and/or modify sensitive and proprietary information where included.
Reciprocity – since the philosophy of benchmarking is premised on continuous improvement, it is often prudent to consider reciprocating generosity by extending an invitation to the benchmarking partner to your company at a future date. This may create useful business bonds that may potentially be mutually beneficial to the two organisations.
Remember to thank the partner(s) for their time and hospitality accorded during the visit(s). Being courteous demonstrates appreciation for the sacrifices made by partner(s) to accommodate and share experiences with yourselves.

Once a benchmarking expedition(s) is complete, it is imperative to evaluate its success. Such an assessment allows the benchmarking organisation to critically evaluate its commitments (time, resources, and personnel) against the potential benefits and decide whether it was good value for money. Accordingly, following the conclusion of the expedition, a survey was conducted amongst the DHG team members, and about 80 per cent were positive that the expeditions were hugely invaluable, with practical approaches to fixing gaps in their subunits besides nurturing excellence.

Research implications

The success of a benchmarking visits/expeditions' outcome is contingent on the planning and training undertaken prior to the visit/expedition, how the visit itself is conducted and crucially, the usability and reliability of data and evidences gathered. Usage of framework to facilitate benchmarking visits focuses actions towards learning and capturing evidences of best practice. Poor planning and execution of a benchmarking visit inevitably yields poor results and vice versa.

Conclusion

Benchmarking visits/expeditions are a cost to businesses and should therefore be designed and executed with utmost care to achieve desired outcomes. Since it is true even in benchmarking expeditions that “what is sown is what it reaped”; no amount of groundwork preparations will secure desired outcomes from a visit without due regard to the execution of the expedition. Preparation and execution of a visit almost always influences (negatively or positive) the outcomes/results of a visit; it is actually the execution of the visit, which swings the outcome either way. Inevitably, lack of a robust approach to guide benchmarking visits explains why so many visits go wrong. Often successful benchmarking expeditions (properly planned in advance) would fail because of lack of a systematic approach to guide execution. Thus, the proposed 7-Step model should prove useful in facilitating and guiding benchmarking visits thereby enabling organisations to reap the full potential of their benchmarking visit(s).

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Influence of the business technological compatibility on the acceptance of innovations

Influence of the business technological compatibility on the acceptance of innovations

The Authors
Blanca Hernández Ortega, Department of Marketing and Business Studies, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
Julio Jiménez Martínez, Department of Marketing and Business Studies, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
Mª José Martín De Hoyos, Department of Marketing and Business Studies, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their gratitude for the financial support received from the Spanish Government CICYT (SEJ2005/05968), the Aragón Regional Government (S-09; PM062-2004; S-14/2), and Cátedra Telefónica.

Abstract

Purpose – The objective of this study is to analyse the influence exerted by technological compatibility upon the intensity of use of the new online management programs made by information technology (IT) sector (new technology companies).

Design/methodology/approach – The concept of perceived compatibility, first defined by Rogers, has been adapted to the specific characteristics of the company as the user of technology, subsequently testing its dimensionality through confirmatory analyses. Additionally, a causal study was made in order to determine the importance of technological compatibility in the intensity of use of online business management. The statistical techniques employed are based on structural equation methodology.

Findings – The results demonstrate that the concept of technological compatibility is composed of several dimensions, which these differentiate the technologies previously applied by the company on the basis of their level of complexity; the overall concept achieves an explanatory power of 56 per cent with regard to subsequent technological development.

Practical implications – Knowledge derived from technological compatibility permits the correct evaluation of whether to accept a new IT application, providing the company with a series of positive synergies which increase the advantages of its online business management.

Originality/value – The originality of this study stems from its innovative treatment of the company as the IT user, adapting to this end the concept of compatibility hitherto exclusively applied to the analysis of the individual. Similarly, in distinction to the unidimensional approach of other research, this study has taken into account the need to establish different constructs for the measurement of technological compatibility and has demonstrated its importance in company technological development.

Article Type: Research paper
Keyword(s): Innovation, Communication technologies, Online operations
Journal: European Journal of Innovation Management
Volume: 10 Number: 1 Year: 2007 pp: 7-24
Copyright ©Emerald Group Publishing Limited
ISSN: 1460-1060

Introduction
The development of the new information technologies (IT) has had far-reaching effects upon our society, contributing to its increasing economic progress, the appearance of new sectors of activity and the transformation of the competitive environment. This has led to companies transforming their production systems, their product promotion and their relationships with customers, producing almost constant opportunities for innovation (Kotler, 1987; Quelch and Klein, 1996).

The adoption of the new technologies, and in particular IT, has been widely analysed in various studies over the years, which have attempted to correctly define the factors which condition a decision of no little importance (Chow, 1967; Bass, 1969; Davis et al., 1989). The majority of such research develops empirically tested models and tries to explain either the intention of the subject or the intensity of use of diverse technologies, such as personal computers (Igbaria et al., 1995), e-commerce (Gefen and Straub, 2000; Childers et al., 2001) or EDI (Angeles and Nath, 2000). Such models are usually based on the essential role played by the subjective element guiding individual decisions, and introduce factors such as perceived usefulness or ease of use by end-users. However, none of them investigate the behaviour of the company as user.

The objective of this study is to analyse the intensity of use of the new online management programs made by a business sector (new technology companies or IT companies) which has, in recent years, become extremely important to the economy as a whole[1] but nevertheless has not yet been analysed from this viewpoint. In order to do this, we analysed the influence of technological compatibility or previous experience in technology use upon the intensity of use of the new applications which appear in the market for the development of business management.

The importance of this analysis lies, firstly, in understanding how companies which have IT as an output use it as simply one more input in their production process, being able to evaluate the synergies derived from its application due to the compatibility generated by the previous employment of other systems. Secondly, it is important to remember that the level of technological development within the IT sector is greater than that of other economic activities; its experience of specific computer-based tools (know-how) may be extrapolated to organisations in other sectors. Consequently, we believe it is important to study this experience in pioneering companies, in order to subsequently understand what difficulties other companies will encounter when they wish to adopt such innovations.

Review of the literature
The implementation of new technological systems related to information has been a key factor in company development in recent years, as businesses have had to respond adequately to the challenge posed by their adoption (Haeckel, 1985). Nevertheless, on the contrary to what might have been expected, such applications have not always produced satisfactory results, and have on occasion resulted in losses which must be assumed by the organisation (Shani and Sena, 1994; Clegg et al., 1997)[2] As a result, and despite the new technological management systems being presented as an attractive opportunity for modern companies, not all of these have chosen to include such applications in the development of their activity; moreover, it is very difficult to predict the degree of rejection or acceptance on the basis of externally visible characteristics.

Many authors have attempted to pinpoint the various explanatory factors which indicate the intention to use and the level of adoption of such technologies. In this field, the pioneering work of Rogers (1983, 1995) is especially important; he proposed a factor he termed “perceived compatibility” which reflects the degree to which the use of an innovation is considered by the individual as consistent with his/her values, sociocultural beliefs and past and present experiences. Perceived compatibility has been viewed as an essential factor in the explanation of behaviour towards IT, and diverse empirical evidence has been found to confirm its influence upon the use of such technologies (Tornatzky and Klein, 1982; Moore and Benbasat, 1991; Agarwal and Karahanna, 1998). Nevertheless, it must be emphasised that most of these studies have focused on analysing the subjective behaviour of the individual (i.e. aspects such as amusement and entertainment), and thus the concept has neglected to take into account the nature of other potential users of such tools, namely companies and public administrations (Fitzpatrick, 1998; Miyazaki and Fernández, 2001).

Similarly, Rogers (1983, 1995) affirms that certain innovations are closely interlinked, and, therefore, there exists a strong correlation between the previous experience of the subject with particular tools and the subsequent use of other applications. This idea leads to the introduction of the concept of “technology clustering” employed by various authors (Leung, 2001; Eastin, 2002) and defined as the set of technologies perceived by the user as interrelated and determinants of the subsequent degree of acceptance of others. Thus, those subjects with greater experience of a particular IT modify positively their perception of other similar technologies and increase their level of use (Dahlen, 2002; Novak et al., 2000; Ward and Lee, 2000), and even come to observe a pattern of conduct differentiated between them (Reed et al., 2000; Shih, 2004).

In this way, the previous experience of the user in the IT field has been considered to be a factor even more important than experience in the offline sphere (Bezos, 1999). Since, Igbaria (1993) demonstrated that previous user experience of IT has a direct effect upon the degree of subsequent acceptance, many authors have introduced this variable into their studies (e.g. Min and Galle, 2003, among others). Some of them affirm that experience, and thus the knowledge acquired regarding the medium, alters the behaviour of the individual and facilitates decision-making in subsequent situations (Venkatesh and Morris, 2000; O'Cass and Fenench, 2003). Similarly, it is indisputable that experience modifies certain perceptions of the individual with respect to the new technologies, such as perceived usefulness or ease of use (Davis et al., 1989; Sadri and Robertson, 1993; Torkzadeh and Koufteros, 1994), while the time and effort invested in their employment simultaneously diminish (Norman, 1998; Haider and Frensch, 1999).

In the business environment, the concept of compatibility, derived from experience, has also been introduced in order to explain the behaviour of companies as users. Consequently, using as a basis the theory of organisational learning, March (1991) considers that experience leads to a wider knowledge base and more solid technological skills, while Barkema and Vermeulen (1998) argue that compatibility increases due to the variety of events a company undergoes.

Shirani et al. (1994) establish a series of variables which are relevant for the prediction of company behaviour. The first of these represents experience in the technology field, while the second, called external organisational culture, alludes to the compatibility which must be established between the general structure of a company and the new technological systems which are introduced. On occasions, both variables have been grouped together under the name of intra- and extra-organizational characteristics; these refer to the conditions of the company itself which produce the application of a particular innovation (Igbaria et al., 1997). Equally, what for individuals has been called the ability to manage technological aspects, in the case of the company has been termed cultural capabilities, which permit the adaptation of its activities to the new opportunities provided by technology (Tiessen et al., 2001).

Jiménez and Polo (1998) analyse the diffusion of EDI in companies. Using a model into which they introduce aspects related to the level of technological sophistication, they consider that the development of the new information systems and their ability to manage them have a positive influence upon the diffusion of other more novel tools. Previous experience with fax, e-mail or videotex affects the perception of the complexity of EDI, which encourages its acceptance and the employment of other similar systems (Jiménez and Polo, 1998). Similarly, other authors, such as Arunchalam (1997), observe that the lack of technological skills and non-automation are two key barriers to the implantation of EDI within the company.

When analysing the intensity of company use of various ITs, such as EDI, online data access, e-mail and the internet, Premkumar and Roberts (1999) observe that the degree of compatibility and previous experience differ between adopters and non-adopters, and thus both are considered to be variables which significantly differentiate behaviour. Mirchandani and Motwani (2001) formulate a model which quantifies the technological intensity of the company, and into which they also introduce the compatibility and prior knowledge acquired during the employment of other related tools. Similarly, Grandon and Pearson (2004) undertake a study of the implantation of new systems and, after performing a confirmatory factor analysis, observe that compatibility is a factor independent of organisational preparation, and thus constitutes a defining variable of the model.

Our study takes as its starting point the concept of compatibility initially defined by Rogers (1983, 1995), which has been adapted to the objective characteristics of the company as user, eliminating those aspects of a personal character (beliefs and values) upon which other studies have concentrated. We consider that compatibility, in the case of companies, must take into account the knowledge gained from past and present experiences with technology; these comprise the concept termed technological compatibility. In distinction to other studies (LaRose and Atkín, 1992; Leung, 2001; Eastin, 2002), where experience is introduced in a general and unitary manner, we believe that technological compatibility must distinguish the technologies analysed on the basis of their complexity, including not only basic knowledge considered in the literature as a determinant of the development of the standard company (the internet and e-mail), but also more complex applications, such as EDI (Premkumar and Roberts, 1999; Emmanouilides and Hammond, 2002; Barwise et al., 2002). Their joint effect determines the level of overall technological compatibility of the company, and modifies its conduct with regard to the intensity of use of new systems and its subsequent technological development.

Objectives and hypotheses of the research
The objective of this study was to analyse the intensity of use of online management programs by companies in the IT sector, on the basis of technological compatibility. In order to achieve this objective, two sub-objectives needed to be established as follows:

To analyse the technological compatibility concept, in such a way as to permit the quantification of the effect this construct has upon intensity of use of IT companies. The perspectives analysed were diverse, since both the use of a series of earlier tools and the perceptions derived from their application (ease of use and usefulness) were covered. The introduction of the latter was suggested by other studies which demonstrate that the perceptions associated with a particular technology serve as an indicator for the evaluation of their objective level of development (Davis et al., 1989; Woszczynski et al., 2002; Amoako-Gyampah and Salam, 2004). Similarly, positive perceptions of a specific system, such as the ease of use and usefulness associated with it, encourage users to employ it more intensively and at the same time predispose them to apply other tools which are related but more sophisticated (Gefen and Straub, 1997, 2000; Igbaria et al., 1997; Lee et al., 2003; Shih, 2004; Shang et al., 2005).

The systems we consider to be compatibility generators are closely interrelated to online management programs, and thus the analysis of the level of development of earlier tools (technology clustering) helps to determine the intensity of use of the new programs. To perform such an analysis, we included aspects previously considered to be determinants of technological experience in traditional companies, such as the internet and e-mail (Emmanouilides and Hammond, 2002; Barwise et al., 2002) and, moreover, more complex tools such as EDI. These technologies had already been included by Premkumar and Roberts (1999) in their analysis of the development of small rural businesses, taking into account that an obvious interaction exists between them; they were, therefore, believed to also be appropriate for the study of the behaviour of the IT sector.

However, in contrast to the majority of earlier research (Etteman, 1984; Leung, 2001; Eastin, 2002), but in the same way as Liaw and Huang (2003) and Liaw et al. (2006) [3] this study argues that the two aspects cannot be contained within a single construct, but instead that their effect depends on the levels of complexity faced by the company during the application of earlier technologies, and, therefore, is composed of at least two dimensions (basic and complex):H1. The technological compatibility of the company is a factor composed of at least two dimensions, which differentiate the use of technologies prior to online management programs on the basis of their level of complexity. Despite this differentiation, it must not be forgotten that the underlying dimensions reflect a common concept, and thus must converge in a single, non-directly observable construct, called technological compatibility. This latent variable represents the overall influence of the previous application of IT tools upon subsequent technological development:H2. The dimensions which comprise technological compatibility converge in a single concept which represents the overall importance of the compatibility generated by the set of earlier systems applied in the company.
Once the concept and dimensions of technological compatibility had been studied, the following step was to analyse the relation existing between this concept and the intensity of use of online management programs. Thus, those companies having more experience with earlier technologies (and, therefore, greater knowledge) will make more intensive use of new programs. This objective can be resumed in the following hypothesis:H3. Those companies which have a greater level of technological compatibility with earlier IT systems display a greater intensity of use of the new online management programs. The theoretical model is shown in Figure 1.

Methodology

As stated earlier, this study was performed for companies in the IT sector, as their very nature means that, on the one hand, they display a higher level of technological development than traditional companies, while on the other they reflect the situation which other economic sectors will face within a few years.

The technique used was the mail (both traditional and electronic) survey, sent to a sample of 449 IT companies. A total of 114 firms (25.38 per cent) replied and, following the filtering process, a final sample of 109 valid cases was obtained; the fieldwork was performed in November 2004. Although the sample size may be considered somewhat small for studies of consumer behaviour, in the case of research into organizations it is thought to be acceptable, due to the difficulty in obtaining responses (Bennet et al., 2005; Min and Galle, 2003; Baldauf et al., 1999). As in other studies (Lu and Yeh, 1998; Riemneschneider et al., 2003; Grandon and Pearson, 2004), the unit of analysis was the company as a whole, and not its employees, and thus the questionnaires were directed to managers, who responded on behalf of the firm.

Items related to experience with the internet, e-mail and EDI (see Appendix) were initially included. Similarly, the indicators included for each of these technologies were: usefulness, ease of use, and intensity of use, as these reflect the knowledge acquired from previous experiences. All these were obtained from a review of other research in which the adoption and use of technologies, on the basis of these perceptions, were studied (Gefen and Straub, 1997, 2000; Igbaria et al., 1997; Lee et al., 2003; Shih, 2004; Shang et al., 2005).

The endogenous variable, “intensity of use of online programs” was measured using four items which reflect the computerised performance of the principal organisational functions, i.e. commercial management, financial accounting, budgetary management and after-sales service (see Appendix). In order to measure all the variables, 7-point Likert scales were employed, in which 1 indicated “completely disagree” and 7 “completely agree”.

With regard to the statistical techniques used, the first step was the performance of various analyses in order to establish dimensionality, refine the scales and test their degree of validity and reliability. Subsequently, the dimensionality of technological compatibility (H1) was tested using a rival models technique, while a second-order factor analysis was employed to check its convergence in a single construct (H2). Finally, a structural model was performed (H3).

Results
Analysis of initial reliability

The first step was to refine the proposed scales; a exploratory factor analyses[4] was performed, using the “principal axis factoring” method[5] and Varimax rotation, as the literature advises (McDonald, 1981; Kaiser, 1970). In this way, three differentiated factors were obtained; the first two dimensions (F1 and F2) refer to the indicators used to measure compatibility, while the third (F3) represents items related to the intensity of use of online management programs. With regard to the constructs related to compatibility, the F1 groups together the indicators linked to the employment of basic technologies (internet and e-mail), while the F2 represents the items related to the use of complex technologies (EDI). All the loads exceeded the established minimum of 0.5, and the percentage of variance explained was 66.4 per cent for compatibility, and 68 per cent for management programs (Hair et al., 1999).

The following step was to test initial reliability, using Cronbach's α analyses and establishing as reference the surmounting of the recommended value of 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). It was necessary to eliminate, from factor F1, the items related to ease of use (INT_3 y EMA_3) (see Appendix), and the indicator of the computerised after-sales functions of the company (PROG_4) was dropped from construct F3. Thus, following this process of initial refinement, the scales of the endogenous variable displayed an α value of 0.785, and those established for the measurement of technological compatibility obtained 0.879 (basic technologies) and 0.863 (complex technologies). With respect to the item-total correlation, in all cases this greatly exceeded the minimum of 0.3 established by Nurosis (1993).

The elimination of these indicators gave rise to the repetition of both exploratory factor analyses, with the result that the remaining indicators were grouped together in the same way and within the same constructs as in the initial analysis. Consequently, the factor loads exceeded 0.5 and the variances explained reached 73 per cent for technological compatibility and 70.1 per cent for the intensity of use of online management programs.

Reliability, dimensionality and validity of scales

Following the explanatory analysis, confirmatory analyses were performed; these allowed the continuation of the process of refining and validation of the scales, and also the evaluation of the reliability and validity of the proposed dimensions. To this end, structural equation methods (SEMs) were applied, using the statistical software EQS 5.7b, and resorting to the method of maximum likelihood estimation, since our data did not fulfil the hypothesis of normality (Bentler, 1995).

Firstly, those items which did not meet one or more of the three criteria (weak convergence, strong convergence and explanatory coefficient) proposed by Jöreskog and Sörbom (1993) [6] were eliminated. As a result, the item related to the usefulness of internet (INT_2) (see Appendix) did not attain a sufficiently high R 2 and was, therefore, excluded. Subsequently, the analysis for the resulting variables was repeated, producing results which were favourable in each case with regard to the three criteria described.

Once the scales were refined a test was performed to decide if it would be convenient to establish a bidimensional structure for the technological compatibility concept, employing the rival models technique proposed by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) and Hair et al. (1999). This analysis consists of comparing two alternative models; in the first of these the dimensions obtained in the exploratory analysis for that factor are differentiated, while the second establishes a unidimensional model, in which all the indicators are grouped within a single construct.

As Table I shows, the establishment of bidimensionality considerably improves the goodness-of-fit of a single underlying factor for technological compatibility. We, therefore, chose to respect the structure proposed in the initial hypotheses of the current study.

Similarly, once the model to be studied was determined and its component dimensions verified, the following step was to test its psychometric properties (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988).

With regard to reliability, due to the elimination of items having modified the initial structure analysed, the scales were subjected once again to the criteria of Cronbach's α and item-total correlation; in both cases adequate results were achieved. Additionally, verification was made of the fulfilment of other reliability indicators, such as the composite reliability coefficient (CRC) proposed by Jöreskog (1971), and the average variance extracted (AVE) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The results exceed in all cases the, respectively, recommended values of 0.6 and 0.5 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988) (Table II).

Lastly, the validity of the scales as a measurement instrument for the concept they represent, was verified, by studying both content validity and construct validity. With regard to content validity, this was derived from the bibliographical review outlined in earlier sections, which presented the references for the studies which we have used as the basis for the definition of technological compatibility. It must be remembered that the specific nature of the company as user required the addition of elements which are not found in studies of individual users; similarly, it was necessary to eliminate other variables which were not appropriate when analysing the organization as a whole, in distinction to each of its workers.

Construct validity is comprised of convergent validity and discriminant validity. In the case of the unidimensional factor (intensity of use of online programs), the former tests the convergence between the set of explanatory variables of a scale and its corresponding construct; the confirmatory analysis, therefore, needed to obtain values for the standardised loads greater than 0.5 (Steenkamp and Van Trijp, 1991). If bidimensionality existed (technological compatibility), then in addition to verifying the earlier criteria for all the indicators of each factor, the correlations between the two dimensions obtained were required to be significant at a level of 99 per cent. All the variables of the model displayed these properties, and thus convergent validity was proved (Table II). With regard to discriminant validity, this was confirmed using three criteria (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). Firstly, the correlations between the various factors which comprise the model must not have exceeded 0.8, since that would have indicated low discriminant validity (Bagozzi, 1994). Subsequently, the intervals of the correlations were estimated for the different latent variables, checking that none of them contained the value 1. Finally, the AVE by the underlying construct is greater than the shared variance with other latent constructs (Dholakia et al., 2004).

The fulfilment of the totality of the criteria applied, together with appropriate goodness-of-fit indices (Table II), permitted us to validate the scales and the proposed measurement model.

Thus, H1 was proved, since technological compatibility is composed of two constructs which measure company experience in the use of IT. The F1 gathers together the indicators linked to the employment of internet and e-mail, and is, therefore, termed “Compatibility with basic technologies” while the second (F2) represents items related to EDI, an application which requires more sophisticated training and is consequently called “compatibility with complex technologies”.

The following step was to test, using a second order factor analysis, whether both factors converge in a single construct, which would corroborate H2.

Second order confirmatory factor analysis
Having tested the psychometric properties of the first order factors which comprise the model, the next test was of the confluence of the constructs which comprise compatibility in one single factor; this encapsulates the joint effect of basic and complex tools upon the subsequent technological development of the company. The results of the analysis and of the goodness-of-fit indices are shown in Figure 2.

It can be observed that both factors are significant at a level of 0.05, the effect exercised by the experience gained in the use of EDI (“compatibility with complex technologies”) acquires greater weight in the determination of technological compatibility. The explanation for this resides in the intrinsic nature of the sector under analysis; since IT companies are organizations inextricably linked to communication technologies, and thus the use of internet and e-mail are considered to be basic and is widespread in the general performance of its activity. As a result, although they influence company behaviour, they do not produce differences as notable as those derived from other more sophisticated tools (EDI).

In view of the results obtained H2 is fulfilled, since there exists a single concept regarding technological compatibility that groups together two dimensions, which distinguish between the use of basic technologies and the use of complex technologies. This factor represents the joint effect of the knowledge acquired from previous experience with technology, which has an overall influence upon the behaviour of the company as user.

Structural model analysis (SEM)
Having verified the existence of a second order factor and validated the measurement model, the final objective of this study was to estimate, using structural equation models, the relationship which exists between technological compatibility and intensity of use of other more complicated computer-based systems. Goodness-of-fit indices exceeded in all cases the recommended limits (Hair et al., 1999) (Table III).

Consequently, goodness-of-fit indices derived from the model were found; these exceeded, in all cases, the recommended limits (Hair et al., 1999) (Table III). Equally, the R 2 of the endogenous variables displays a value of 0.56, which represents an extremely high explanatory index, if we take into consideration that the model only represents the effect of one concept.

With regard to the third hypothesis posed, it can be observed that technological compatibility has a positive affect upon the intensity use of online management programs, as shown by the standardized parameter of the relationship (+0.75); this means that the greater the previous experience in the use of such technologies in the day-to-day activity of the company, the greater will be technological development through the employment of business management systems.

Conclusions and managerial implications
The objective of this study was to analyse the relationship between technological compatibility and the intensity of use of other more sophisticated IT. Thus, the study has attempted to test the validity of experience with basic and complex applications as an indicator of the use and future development of technologies for online business management.

In order to do this, we focused on a business sector inextricably linked to technology, namely IT companies. This choice was due, firstly, to the importance which this activity has acquired for the countries' GNP in recent years and, secondly, to the sector's close relationship to various aspects of computerisation, which cause it to display a high level of technological development (and one which will probably be experienced by all other companies in the future). These characteristics have repercussions upon the empirical analysis, since the use of the internet and e-mail are intrinsic to such companies, given the nature of their activity; this leads them to obtain extremely high average values for the indicators related to usefulness and perceived ease of use (internet ease of use = 6.678; internet usefulness = 6.806; E-mail usefulness = 6.761), meaning they must finally be eliminated. Probably, if the model was to be extended to other sectors of the economy, the lower level of development and familiarity which exists with regard to the new ITs would mean that such concepts were not generalised, and thus their averages would not attain such high values and they would form part of the technological compatibility concept.

The initial contribution of the current study has been to adapt the concept of perceived compatibility to the characteristics of companies as users of IT and the new computer-based systems. The effect of this factor upon the behaviour of the individual end-user had already been analysed in earlier studies (Miyazaki and Fernández, 2001); nevertheless, the employment of an approach founded principally upon beliefs, values and feelings obliged us to restrict it to the past experiences of the company as the user of new technologies, labelling it technological compatibility.

The results show that in the study of company behaviour, such a concept cannot be analysed in conjunction with others; the sheer variety of tools familiar to and employed by the company requires their differentiation. Consequently, the second contribution of this study has been to demonstrate the bidimensionality of the technological compatibility construct, and additionally to verify that both dimensions converge in a single concept which encapsulates the overall influence of the systems used. Similarly, the current environment obliges companies to undertake their activity against a continuously changing economic background, in which there exist many varied technologies; moreover, knowledge within the IT sphere, encompasses many diverse aspects. Thus, the knowledge acquired by a company cannot be restricted to the confines of a single construct, which would group together indicators of contrasting types that cannot be analysed in conjunction with each other; instead, a distinction must be made between technologies which form part of day-to-day company activity, and are consequently called basic (internet and e-mail), and those which, due to their complexity, require a prolonged learning process (EDI).

Finally, the causal relationship established between such a construct and corporate technological development was tested, by analysing the intensity of use of online management programs. It is clear that greater compatibility leads to greater acceptance and application of new technological systems, and thus it can be affirmed that the experience accumulated by the employment of other earlier tools, linked to the new systems, facilitates the intensity of use of computer-based instruments.

The conclusions reached have important implications for the business world. On the one hand, companies should be aware that interrelationships exist among the various ITs, and thus investment in a specific tool related to IT may facilitate the acceptance and subsequent performance of other related applications. Similarly, the development of compatibility produces a series of synergies derived from the application of mutually complementary systems, allowing companies to improve their results by computerising their business management. These synergies must be exploited by companies which wish to invest in technology, thereby encouraging the acquisition of knowledge which will prove profitable in a multitude of future activities and increasing the efficiency achieved (Kaefer and Bendoly, 2004). In this way, the learning process undergone will diminish the perception of risk associated with the implementation of a new programme, creating overall compatibility which will significantly affect the degree of future development. This technical aptitude will allow companies to correctly evaluate subsequent related projects, assessing the true value of an investment in technology and avoiding the potential risk of economic losses.

Nevertheless, it must be remembered that the technological environment is constantly developing, and thus the interrelationship which exists between systems varies according to its level of complexity or innovation. The life cycle of IT is ever shorter, meaning it is essential to understand which part of the investment will continue in use and which will become obsolete. As this takes place, it is crucial for the company to accumulate intangible benefits derived from knowledge, as these may be reused for the implementation of new applications and, in addition, they maintain the current value of the technology. In order not to lose the competitive advantage acquired, companies must continually invest in this field, concentrating especially on the most important aspects and increasing the efficiency of their management. Our general recommendation would be, therefore, to encourage investment in basic technologies before implementing other more sophisticated tools, in order to provide staff with experience and, at the same time, create a corporate culture based on IT, which would permit the company to develop in line with successive technological advances. Thus, ITs must be considered to be not only a tool for today, but also as an investment for the future which increases company competitiveness in the market.

It must be acknowledged that the current study presents certain limitations which should be taken into account when applying the results obtained. The first such shortcoming is the nature of the transversal data, which analysed the importance of technological compatibility in company development but did not clarify the evolution of their dimensions. Earlier studies, such as those by Venkatesh and Morris (2000), considered it important to analyse the influence of experience over a prolonged period of time, and consequently performed longitudinal studies using different analyses of TAM models. A future extension of our study would be the analysis over time of the variation in the importance of each of the constructs which comprise the concept of company technological compatibility, i.e. basic technologies and complex technologies, observing the importance they acquire.

Another possible extension of this study would be to test the model on a sample of organizations belonging to other economic sectors whose productive activities are not related to IT; this would provide the proposed model with wide-reaching validation. Similarly, the technological compatibility common to all companies would be obtained, testing the importance of those systems commonly accepted in the case of the IT sector, but which for other economic sectors are not necessarily of great priority.

ImageProposed model
Figure 1Proposed model

ImageTechnological compatibility factor
Figure 2Technological compatibility factor

ImageGoodness-of-fit indices of the rival models
Table IGoodness-of-fit indices of the rival models

ImageAnalysis of the reliability and validity of the model
Table IIAnalysis of the reliability and validity of the model

ImageCausal analysis
Table IIICausal analysis

Image
Table AI
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Appendix. Measuring scales

Table AI
About the authors

Blanca Hernández Ortega is an Assistant Professor of Marketing in the Department of Marketing and Business Studies at the University of Zaragoza (Spain). Blanca Hernández Ortega is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: bhernand@unizar.es

Julio Jiménez Martínez is PhD in Business Administration, Senior Lecturer in Marketing and Head of the Department of Marketing and Business Studies at the University of Zaragoza (Spain). E-mail: jjimenez@unizar.es

Mª José Martín De Hoyos holds a PhD in Business Administration and is Assistant Professor of Marketing in the Department of Marketing and Business Studies at the University of Zaragoza (Spain). E-mail: mjhoyos@unizar.es

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The challenges for quality managers in Britain and Australia

The challenges for quality managers in Britain and Australia

The Authors
Peter G. Burcher, Aston Business School, Birmingham, UK
Gloria L. Lee, Aston Business School, Birmingham, UK
Dianne Waddell, Deakin University, Burwood, Australia

Abstract

Purpose – This paper aims to compare and contrast the career experiences and development needs of British and Australian quality managers.

Design/methodology/approach – The results of a postal survey of the careers of British quality managers are compared with Australian quality managers based on two surveys.

Findings – The study finds that quality managers in both countries brought wide functional experience to their roles. Their current jobs are major sources of intrinsic job satisfaction for both groups of managers but they utilise a very limited range of quality tools. Also British and Australian managers show little awareness in terms of their development needs for a broader background in quality.

Practical implications – The findings suggest a worrying lack of innovatory zeal amongst quality managers who appear to be more concerned with the maintenance of standards rather than taking a more dynamic approach. Thus it is argued that while quality managers bring wide functional experience to their current roles, there are many who do not appear to be at the cutting edge of knowledge in their field. Neither do the British quality managers in particular appear to be sufficiently aware of the need to address such shortfalls through professional development opportunities.

Originality/value – The roles of those charged with carrying the flag of quality in the two countries have only previously received limited research coverage. This paper, based upon empirical research in Britain and Australia, identifies issues which require the attention of senior management to ensure future competitiveness for their organisations.

Article Type: Research paper
Keyword(s): Quality management; Careers; United Kingdom; Australia; Continuing professional development.

Journal: The TQM Journal
Volume: 20 Number: 1 Year: 2008 pp: 45-58
Copyright © Emerald Group Publishing Limited
ISSN: 1754-2731

Introduction


Whether companies are aspiring to become globally competitive or are striving to maintain this position against newcomers in the market place, the need for more integrative management systems based on total quality management (TQM) has never been more central (Manglesdorf, 1999). Indeed as Slack (2004, p. 519) has argued “quality is the most important single factor affecting an organisation's performance, relative to its competitors”. Everyone in an organisation contributes to quality, thus developing quality cultures is reliant upon people as well as quality techniques (Slack, 2004). For example, Maguad (2006, p. 194) argues that one of the benefits of the ISO system has been that, “quality, which used to be the domain of the quality manager, has now become the responsibility of all personnel”.

The three variants of quality management – compliance-oriented, improvement oriented, and business-management oriented – “need to co-exist and must be managed well in order for the organisation to succeed” since whatever quality system is adopted, the model must be adapted to the specific requirements of the organisation (Maguad, 2006, pp. 192-3). Whilst most organisations recognise the need for such a co-ordinated approach, the issue remains as to the competence and leadership skills of those designated quality managers. In their study of the obstacles to TQM, Sebastianelli and Tamimi (2003) argue that the most common reason for the failure of any quality scheme is ineffective implementation, and the key to implementation is management.

As Goetsch and Davis (2006) argue, the ability of organisations to succeed in a globalised market will depend to a significant extent on the capabilities of the quality managers in terms of knowledge, skills, problem solving and teamwork. In such a dynamic business environment, “the challenge for the quality professional … is to become a ‘change master’ rather than just being a quality manager” (Maguad, 2006, pp. 200-201). The necessity of innovation and rapid flexibility is predicted as resulting in an increased reliance on technology to monitor processes, anticipate problems and implement solutions (Conti et al., 2003; Adamson, 2005).

The abilities now required of the quality manager go far beyond those of chief inspector, reflecting the need to provide advice to managers who are themselves responsible for much broader roles than in previous times (Addey, 2004, p. 880). Indeed, Addey (2006) identifies no less than 14 aspects to the role of the contemporary quality manager, from researcher to strategist to teacher. According to the US quality managers surveyed by Sebastianelli and Tamimi (2003), the key responsibilities of the quality manager include human resource developer, strategic planner, leader and market researcher. In a study of the roles of knowledge managers, perhaps the latest incarnation of quality manager, Adamson (2005, p. 996) identified aspects, including those of entrepreneur, consultant and technologist. So pervasive is quality management throughout the modern organisation – being the responsibility of all staff – and so broad the role of the quality manager that it has been suggested that, “quality as an entity will be subsumed” and quality managers are likely to metamorphose into project managers or executive positions, if they are prepared to do so (Westcott, 2004, p. 23).

These developments mean that the role of the quality manager will not only remain central to organisational success (Goetsch and Davis, 2006), but also, as discussed below, increasingly challenging for those who practise it. Twelve years ago, Juran (1995, pp. 652-3) predicted growth in the professionalism of quality specialists, and a corresponding rise in the number of higher education institutions offering courses with a focus on quality. However, according to Westcott (2004, p. 23), knowledge through formal education is only one facet of competency for the quality manager, alongside experience (applied knowledge), skills (technical competence, for example), aptitude and attitude.

There has been limited research into the ways in which quality managers perceive their jobs but a recent contribution by Balding based on a case study in the Australian health service indicates that quality managers desire “more time, rewards, resources, quality improvement training, evidence of improvements and support from senior management” (Balding, 2005, p. 284). Also a recent large-scale survey of American quality professionals suggests that they and their companies are aware of the importance of continuing professional development to remain competitive and also utilise up-to-date quality techniques (Hennessy, 2005). Despite all the teachings of the quality gurus in the 1980s and 1990s, embedding quality in ways that achieve and maintain high standards has not proved to be easy, with each organisation having to find its own path to success. Thus the role of the quality manager remains a very challenging one (Dwyer, 2002; Van der Wiele and Brown, 2002). To further understanding of such challenges, more needs to be known about the nature of the roles, responsibilities and aspirations of these managers and the studies reported here make a contribution to the debate in the context of Britain and Australia.

This article reports on studies of quality managers that are part of an international research programme into the careers of technical managers, in particular in Britain and Australia (Burcher et al., 2002, 2005, 2006; Stewart and Waddell, 2003; Waddell and Mallen, 2001). The British quality managers' study examines the experiences, satisfactions, aspirations and development needs of 334 British quality managers who responded to a postal survey in 2005. The respondents are members of the Institute of Quality Assurance or members of a business improvement network, together with some other known contacts. The majority of the quality managers are men, with only 46 women in the whole sample. The age range of the sample varies from 26-70 years old with 49 the average age for the group. A total of 57 percent of the managers currently work in manufacturing with the rest in service industries and 70 per cent had undergone major change in the last two years. These companies vary in size with small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) well represented. The headquarters of the companies are predominantly in the UK (62 per cent) with the rest mainly in the USA, Canada or continental Europe.

The results of the British study are compared with those based on two Australian surveys, one of 290 quality managers which examined their background and career histories, current position, sources of job satisfaction and perceptions of the future and a second study of 235 Australian quality managers looking at their background, training and development needs. Both Australian surveys were drawn from the JAS-ANZ Register of Accredited and Certified Organisations. Sample 1 had 18 per cent females, all working in the service sector. The managers ranged in age from 21-64 years old. Of the companies that they worked in, 57 per cent were manufacturing organisations, with 68 per cent owned by Australian corporations and 67 per cent had undergone major change in the last two years. The second Australian sample had 23 per cent women, again mainly in the services sector, and the respondents' age range was from 20-69 years old, with 65 per cent over 40. With these organisations services were more strongly represented, with only 25 per cent in manufacturing.

Thus, whilst the British study was not formally structured to replicate either Australian survey, there are considerable similarities in the characteristics of the respondents and their organisations in both countries.

Background and career history

Respondents in the British study and the first Australian study were very similar in terms of those without post-school formal qualification and those with technician, undergraduate and postgraduate qualification, but the managers in the second Australian study were rather less well qualified (see Figure 1). The quality managers in the British and first Australian studies in particular were generally well qualified, with 63 per cent of the British managers being graduates and another 28 per cent holding other tertiary qualifications, with the figures for the first Australian sample being 57 per cent and 26 per cent respectively. These different qualifications were mainly technical but not in quality per se. Given the average age of the quality managers in both countries, even those with degrees are unlikely to have a formal qualification in quality management prior to embarking on their careers but for the last 20 years there have been many opportunities to study in this area at post experience level.

The quality managers in both countries brought wide functional experience to their roles, with many coming in particular from production and operations and general management, prior to entering the quality field. Generally the Australian managers are likely to have entered the field of quality with less wide functional experience than the British managers (see Figure 2). The quality managers in both countries may not have enjoyed a clear career path from their further/higher education background that led them to this career choice but for those with wider functional experience this would serve as a valuable preparation for subsequent roles and responsibilities in this field. Where quality is treated as an organisation wide imperative, broad functional experience can assist a quality manager in relating to the particular issues for different areas of the organisation.

Perceptions of current roles

Managers in both countries were not only asked about their major roles and responsibilities, but also asked to reflect on them and their major sources of satisfaction and frustration in their work.

The respondents in both surveys were asked an open question about their major roles and responsibilities. Table I, which ranks the most mentioned areas of their work, indicates that although there was broad agreement about the major elements of their work, managers in the two countries ranked the various areas of activity somewhat differently. While responsibility for procedures and work instructions were key role elements for both groups of managers, the British sample prioritised making improvements in this aspect of the work where the Australian managers were more concerned with their monitoring and maintaining role.

The British managers were also asked if they wanted greater control over their areas of responsibility. Again the emphasis was on making improvements in procedures and work instructions (54 per cent), followed by product quality and accounting (both 50 per cent) and liaison with external quality associations (43 per cent).

Using quality tools and techniques

Within their job as British quality managers, 49 per cent have responsibilities for providing a wide variety of employees' training needs but only 42 per cent run employee surveys to ascertain these needs. This disparity was even greater in the case of the Australian quality managers, of whom 64 per cent are responsible for employee training needs, but just 40 per cent run employee surveys. For both groups, these findings raise the question of how effective they are in the role of trainer if they do not conduct employee surveys to determine employee needs.

Further, in both countries the employee training offered by the quality managers has covered diverse programmes. However, in the case of the British quality managers, only 7 per cent of this training specifically relates to quality procedures, compared to 25 per cent in the case of the Australian managers. This suggests that quality per se within training, in British companies in particular, has been given only limited priority (see Figure 3). 39 per cent of the British quality managers and 33 per cent of the Australian managers also undertook customer surveys.

Turning to the quality tools that the managers use, they are somewhat limited in range, with brain storming, control charts/SPC and Pareto analyses comprising much the most widely used tools in both countries. These findings suggest that the vast majority of the managers surveyed in both countries are not using, and indeed may not be aware of, the range of quality tools and techniques available today. As illustrated in Figure 4, it is particularly surprising in the case of the later British study that virtually no mention is made of more sophisticated tools like Six Sigma. This is in stark contrast to a study reported on American managers (Hennessy, 2005).

Perceptions of their career, its satisfactions and its frustrations

A major source of job satisfaction for managers in both countries is improving efficiency. However, the British quality managers rate opportunities for innovating, problem solving and to demonstrate personal initiative similarly highly. Among the Australian quality managers the emphasis is particularly upon improving quality/efficiency, followed by product/process development and people interaction/feedback. Aspects of employee relations are a source of least satisfaction for British managers, who are also particularly frustrated by hours of work and physical working conditions. For the Australians, documentation and bureaucracy, employees' attitudes to quality, auditing/writing procedures and workload/lack of recognition are the least favoured aspects of their work (see Figures 5-7).

Because of differences in the format of the above questions on attitudes to work between the studies in the two countries, the actual percentages shown in Figures 5-7 are less informative than the rankings by the two groups of managers as seen in Tables II and III.

The picture then emerges of the ways in which quality managers see themselves, their contributions to organisations and the circumstances under which they work as essentially one of mixed feelings, like other technical managers previously studied by two of the authors (Burcher et al., 2007). Self-image is particularly important with the British managers, seeing themselves as innovators and initiators but also as people who deliver, as both the British and Australian managers are essentially results-driven through improving efficiency and problem solving. For both groups too, interpersonal relationships, in various forms, can be problematic and a source of least satisfaction in their work. Frustrations arise from what they see as heavy workloads, including the burden of bureaucracy and working conditions.

When the British quality managers were asked to compare their situation with that of other managers in their organisation, whereas work load, work variety and autonomy were considered to be above average compared with others, they rated advancement opportunities and income as somewhat less favourable. The Australian quality managers were given a rather more limited range of work attributes to rate but did not show marked differences from the British sample. The Australian quality managers also saw themselves advantaged in terms of work variety and less favourably placed in relation to income and status recognition (see Figure 8).

Needs for personal development

Whether or not the British quality managers had experienced higher education, a high proportion appreciate the opportunities for continuing professional development with 76 per cent having attended external courses and 38 per cent taking internal courses. The most widely attended external courses were in the areas of ISO 9000, followed by management courses taken internally or externally, then health and safety programmes (see Figures 9 and 10).

In the case of the Australian quality managers, 82 per cent had attended some type of training programme, with general management the most widely studied area, followed by quality practices and principles (see Figure 11).

Managers in both countries then appear to have undergone development opportunities in a range of management related areas but the emphasis specifically on quality issues has been particularly limited amongst the British quality managers. This may be associated with the limited attention given by them to quality procedures when they are offering employee training (see Figure 3 above). When asked what courses they would like to take for their present job and any future jobs, for their present jobs the British quality managers wanted to study business and management followed by languages, whereas for their future jobs it was languages followed by business and management (see Figures 12 and 13).

The Australian managers sought general management courses for their short term needs (see Figure 14) and were mainly seeking a higher degree or general management development for their long term needs. Perhaps it is surprising, given their limited background in quality, that so few of the quality managers in both countries were seeking personal development in the area of quality tools and techniques. Even amongst the graduates in both countries, very few had degrees specialising in quality management.

Conclusions

The studies indicate that quality managers in both countries have varied educational backgrounds and bring diverse experiences from outside the field of quality to their work. However, they appear to be relying on these factors, together with on the job experience within a quality department, to enable them to perform effectively as specialist managers, rather than recognising and seeking knowledge of the wider range of techniques available for their current specialism. This raises the issue, especially in Britain, of whether organisations are offering sufficiently wide development opportunities for their quality managers, to enable them to remain current with quality thinking and the need for this to be integrated into wider management systems to enhance competitiveness. Over 70 per cent of British quality managers and 67 per cent of the Australian indicate that their organisations have undergone major change in the last two years. It may be that such periods of turmoil have not been conducive to offering sufficient training to ensure that their quality managers are at the leading edge of their profession. Certainly in the case of the British managers, such oversights at top management level may be reflected in the opinion of over 50 per cent of the quality managers that there is inadequate knowledge of quality issues at board level.

Tellingly too, when quality managers were asked how they saw their future in their organisation, a significant proportion of the British managers (25 per cent), and of the Australian managers (32 per cent) indicated “no change”. Generally, the findings in both countries suggest that there is a worrying proportion of quality managers working in an un-dynamic career situation. However, for some at least, this does not seem to be a source of major dissatisfaction. Indeed, other findings indicate that the majority of the quality managers studied are well satisfied with many aspects of their job and view it favourably in relation to the situation of other managers in their organisation.

Nevertheless, from an organisational standpoint, in a world of increasing global competition, senior management need to be fully aware of the potential contribution that can be made by a more dynamic approach to quality which pushes back frontiers towards new systems and approaches, thus preparing their organisation more effectively for future challenges. This will require more investment in this area to enable quality managers to update their professional knowledge and capabilities regularly, so that they are in the best possible position to evaluate the range of alternative approaches and systems that could benefit their organisation.

Turning to wider issues of quality management as a profession in the twenty-first century, within the literature, doubts have been raised as to the need for quality managers if quality belongs to everyone (e.g. Maguad, 2006; Westcott, 2004). The picture emerging from the kinds of organisations that this study's quality managers work within is that there are plenty of tasks for quality managers, although their role does not appear to be strategic. Also although Juran in 1995 predicted growth in the professionalism of quality managers, the findings for the British and Australian managers suggest that, while training in specific aspects of quality has been undertaken by some of the managers in both countries, this generally relates to a specific approach like ISO 9000. The question arises as to why a worrying proportion of managers studied had apparently not undertaken any professional development in the area of quality, given that the educational background of most of these managers was not in quality management? Also when asked about their future training needs, quality management came lowest on their list of priorities, especially amongst the British managers. Is it that organisations now consider that whilst quality is an order qualifier, as such it is no longer an order winner, thus it no longer plays such a strategic role? Certainly there have been significant improvements in quality, especially for instance in the automotive industry but does it require a more dynamic role for quality managers to prevent this from slipping back or indeed having to face up to yet more demanding standards being set by other countries in a expanding global economy? Organisations may be unwise to consign quality managers to a role of competent support service, when facing ever more rising demands from customers and ever-increasing competition.

ImageHighest educational qualifications of British and Australian quality managers
Figure 1Highest educational qualifications of British and Australian quality managers

ImagePrevious functional experiences of British and Australian quality managers
Figure 2Previous functional experiences of British and Australian quality managers

ImageEmployee training topics covered by British and Australian quality managers
Figure 3Employee training topics covered by British and Australian quality managers

ImageQuality tools used by British and Australian quality managers
Figure 4Quality tools used by British and Australian quality managers

ImageAspects of high and low job satisfaction of British quality managers
Figure 5Aspects of high and low job satisfaction of British quality managers

ImageAspects of high job satisfaction of Australian sample 1 managers
Figure 6Aspects of high job satisfaction of Australian sample 1 managers

ImageAspects of low job satisfaction of Australian sample 1 managers
Figure 7Aspects of low job satisfaction of Australian sample 1 managers

ImageHow British and Australian managers rated their job against that of other functions
Figure 8How British and Australian managers rated their job against that of other functions

ImageExternal courses taken by British quality managers
Figure 9External courses taken by British quality managers

ImageInternal courses taken by British quality managers
Figure 10Internal courses taken by British quality managers

ImageExternal and internal courses taken by Australian quality managers, survey 2
Figure 11External and internal courses taken by Australian quality managers, survey 2

ImageTraining needed for present job for British quality managers
Figure 12Training needed for present job for British quality managers

ImageTraining needed for future careers of British quality managers
Figure 13Training needed for future careers of British quality managers

ImageShort-term training needs of Australian (2) quality managers
Figure 14Short-term training needs of Australian (2) quality managers

ImageThe rank order of major roles and responsibilities of British and Australian quality managers
Table IThe rank order of major roles and responsibilities of British and Australian quality managers

ImageSummary of sources of satisfaction for the two groups of managers
Table IISummary of sources of satisfaction for the two groups of managers

ImageSummary of sources of dissatisfaction for the two groups of managers
Table IIISummary of sources of dissatisfaction for the two groups of managers
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Corresponding author

Peter G. Burcher can be contacted at: p.g.burcher@aston.ac.uk

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